Note

“Our Economics” (Iqtiṣādunā) is one of the significant works of Martyr Sadr, which he wrote in response to the intellectual onslaught of Western and Eastern civilizations on the Islamic world and to meet the needs of the Islamic community. This work has been translated into Persian by Mr. Sayyid Muhammad Mahdi Borhani in two volumes and published by Dar al-Sadr Publications. The following text attempts to provide a content report of the first volume of this work.

Bibliographic Information: Our Economics, Book One, Martyr Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, Translation: Sayyid Muhammad Mahdi Borhani, Qom: Dar al-Sadr Publications, 431 pages, First Print, 2014 AD.

Introduction

As Martyr Sadr wrote in the introduction to the book, this work was compiled to present a comprehensive and complete picture of Islamic economics. He writes in the introduction:

“In the book ‘Our Philosophy’ (Falsafatunā), we made a promise to our dear readers and said that the book ‘Our Philosophy’ is the first part of discussions that examine the lofty and magnificent edifice of the monotheistic creed in Islam; and following it, studies will come that relate to the examination of the superstructure of this palace, so that at the end of this path, a complete mental image of Islam – as a living creed in its depth, a flawless system for life, and a special method in education and thought – will emerge for us… Our readers, due to their eagerness to obtain a detailed and comprehensive study on the philosophy, principles, outlines, and teachings of Islamic economics, insistently asked us to publish the book ‘Our Economics’ sooner. And thus, we have made every effort in this book to present a relatively complete picture of Islamic economics, as we understand it today from its sources and wellsprings.”

Martyr Sadr further clarifies his meaning of the term “Islamic economics” and points out: “I would like to point out here, in this introduction, a note regarding the ‘term Islamic economics’ and my meaning of this term, around which the discussions of the book revolve; because the word economics has a long history in human thought and, as a result of the various meanings it has undergone, has become somewhat complex and ambiguous, and its denotation from a scientific and doctrinal perspective has become intertwined. Therefore, when we want to define the precise concept of ‘Islamic economics,’ we must distinguish between the science of economics and an economic doctrine, and understand the extent of the mutual influence between scientific and doctrinal thought, so that through this, we can specify what is meant by Islamic economics. The science of economics is a science that deals with the interpretation of economic life and its events and phenomena, and discovers the relationship between these events and phenomena and the general causes and factors governing them. This science is a newly born discipline that, in the precise sense of the word, came into existence approximately four centuries ago, at the beginning of the capitalist era; although its earliest roots extend deep into history. Each civilization, according to the possibilities it possessed, has participated in economic thought and played a role in its formation; however, the precise scientific conclusions that are seen for the first time in the science of political economy are indebted to recent centuries.”

He continues: “When we use the term ‘Islamic economics,’ we do not directly mean the science of political economy; because this science is almost a newly born discipline, and also because Islam is a religion of call (daʿwah) and a way of life, and its primary duty is not to engage in scientific discussions. What we mean by Islamic economics is the economic system of Islam, in which Islam’s method of organizing economic life based on the intellectual foundation of this system is embodied. This foundation includes the ethical ideas of Islam, its scientific ideas in the realm of economics, historical ideas related to issues of political economy, or the analysis of the history of human societies. And thus, what we mean by Islamic economics is the economic system of Islam, which must be viewed within its complete framework; also, this view must be in relation to the specific intellectual foundation upon which the Islamic economic system relies and which interprets the approaches of this system to the problems it addresses. The identification of this intellectual foundation for us is either based on the direct explanations of Islam or by virtue of the light that the system itself sheds on economic and historical issues; because the type of scientific perspective of Islam in the discussions of the science of political economy or in the discussions of historical materialism and the philosophy of history can be discovered and studied from within the system that Islam has adopted and to which it has called.”

Topics of the First Volume

The topics of the first volume of Our Economics are structured around three main axes: 1. Alongside Marxism; 2. Alongside Capitalism; 3. The Main Indicators of Our Economics. Below, the detailed titles of these chapters are reported.

Chapter One: Alongside Marxism

This chapter begins with an introduction and then the following topics are discussed:

• The Theory of Historical Materialism
  • Introduction
  • Single-Factor Theories
  • The Economic Factor or Historical Materialism
  • Historical Materialism and the Attribute of “Reality”
• 2. Examination of the Theory in Light of Philosophical Foundations
  • In Light of Philosophical Materialism
  • In Light of the Laws of Dialectics
    • a) The Dialectical Method
    • b) The Worthlessness of Historical Dialectics
    • c) Contradiction of the Result with the Method
  • In Light of Historical Materialism
• 3 – Examining the Comprehensiveness of the Theory
  • 1- Types of Evidence for Proving Materialism
    • a) Philosophical Evidence
    • b) Psychological Evidence
    • c) Scientific Evidence
  • 2- Is There a Higher Criterion?
  • 3- Has Marxism Been Able to Comprehensively Analyze History?
• Critique of Historical Materialism
  • 1- Marxism and the Evolution of Productive Forces
  • 2- Marxism and Thought
    • a) Religion
    • b) Philosophy
    • c) Science
  • 3- Marxism and the Class System
  • 4- Marxism and Natural Factors
  • 5 – Marxism and Artistic Taste
• 4- Detailed Examination of the Theory
  • 1- The Primitive Communist Society
    • Did the Primitive Communist Society Exist?
    • How Do We Interpret Primitive Communism?
    • What is the Antithesis of Communist Society?
  • 2- Slave Society
  • 3- Feudal Society
    • Critique of the Marxist View Regarding the Transition from Slave Society to Feudal Society
      • a) Non-Revolutionary Nature of the Transition
      • b) Lack of Evolution in Productive Forces Beyond Social Evolution
      • c) Lack of Economic Development
  • 4- The Emergence of Capitalist Society
    • Marx’s Admission
    • Laws of Capitalist Society
    • Labor as the Basis of Price
    • How Did Marx Establish the Fundamental Rule of His Economics?
    • Critique of the Fundamental Rule of Marxist Economics
    • Marxist Critique of Capitalist Society
    • Contradictions of Capitalism
    • Critique of the Theory of Surplus Value
    • Critique of Class Contradiction
    • Other Stages of Marxist Analyses of Capitalist Society
    • Evaluation of the Marxist Analysis of Capitalism
• The Marxist School of Thought
  • Introduction
  • What are Socialism and Communism?
  • General Critique of the Marxist School of Thought
  • Detailed Critique of the Marxist School of Thought
  • Socialism
    • 1- Abolition of the Class System
    • 2- The Necessity of Dictatorial Government
    • 3- Nationalization
    • 4- From Each According to His Ability, To Each According to His Work
  • Communism
    • 1- Abolition of Private Property
    • 2- The Withering Away of the Communist State

Chapter Two: Alongside Capitalism

In this chapter, the following topics are discussed and examined:

• Introduction to the Discussion
• The Main Pillars of the Capitalist System
• The Capitalist System is Not a Product of Scientific Laws
• Scientific Laws in Capitalist Economics Have a Doctrinal Framework
• Types of Economic Laws
• The Difference Between Economic Laws and Other Scientific Laws
• Examination of Fundamental Ideas and Values in the Capitalist System
  • a) Freedom as a Means to Achieve Public Interest
    • The Perceived Harmony Between Public Interests and Personal Motives
  • b) Freedom as a Factor for Production Growth
  • c) Freedom as a True Representation of Human Value
• Natural Freedom and Social Freedom
• The True Essence of Social Freedom and Its Apparent Form
• The Stance of the Capitalist School on Social Freedom

Chapter Three: The Main Indicators of Our Economics

The topics of this chapter are:

• 1. The Main Indicators of Our Economics
  • 1- The General Structure of Islamic Economics
    • 1- The Principle of Multiple Forms of Ownership
    • 2- The Principle of Economic Freedom within a Limited Sphere
      • Inherent Limitation of Freedom
      • Objective Limitation of Freedom
    • 3- The Principle of Social Justice
    • Realism and Ethicalism of Islamic Economics
  • 2- Islamic Economics as Part of a Whole
    • The Context of Islamic Society
    • Examples of the Link Between Islamic Economics and Other Islamic Elements
  • 3- The General Framework of Islamic Economics
    • Human Interests
    • Conditions for Securing Human Interests
    • The Possibility of Accessing Natural Benefits
    • The Problem of Accessing Social Benefits
    • Can Science Solve the Problem?
    • Historical Materialism and Solving the Problem
    • The Role of Religion as the Only Solution to the Problem
  • 4- Islamic Economics is Not a Science
  • 5 – Separation of Distribution Relations from the Mode of Production
  • 6 – The Economic Problem from an Islamic Perspective and Its Solutions
    • What is the Economic Problem?
    • The System of Distribution
    • The Role of Labor in Distribution
    • The Role of Need in Distribution
    • Need from the Perspective of Islam and Communism
    • Need from the Perspective of Islam and Marxist Socialism
    • Need from the Perspective of Islam and Capitalism
    • Private Property
    • Ownership as a Secondary Tool of Distribution
    • Exchange
    • Methods of Exchange
    • Effects of Substituting Money for Goods
    • Islam’s Stance on Monetary Problems

Topics of the Second Volume

Introduction

As Martyr Sadr wrote in the introduction to the first volume of the book, this work was compiled to present a comprehensive and complete picture of Islamic economics. In the introduction to the second volume of the book, he further explains: “This book is the third link in the chain of discussions that we began with ‘Our Philosophy,’ and it is itself the second book of ‘Our Economics.’ This work contains an effort to arrive at the Islamic economic doctrine in light of the laws of Islam and its concepts that relate to economic fields. Thus, this effort reflects two processes, one of which is based on the other:

1- Gathering a number of laws and concepts that can shed light on the process of arriving at this doctrine.
2- Interpreting that set of laws and concepts in such a way as to present a unified theory that demonstrates the essence of the Islamic economic doctrine. This book undertakes the second task and, of course, to perform the first task, it also gathers rulings and laws that pave the way for the successful completion of the second task; however, I do not intend in these rulings to base them on my personal jurisprudential opinion. Therefore, the rulings that appear in this book are not all cases that conform to my jurisprudential viewpoint; rather, among them are rulings that are not compatible with my jurisprudential foundation, but they play a significant role in the discussions of this book, and we will pay special attention to them in the appendices of this work.”

He continues: “Therefore, it is necessary for me to clarify this point so that it is not assumed that the statement of any ruling in this book and the emphasis on it is evidence that I also hold this belief from a jurisprudential perspective. I must also state the sources of this book in بیان (expressing/stating) the rulings on lands, mines, waters, transactions, and the like. For this purpose, three sources can be enumerated as the pillars of the rulings and regulations presented in this book:

1- The jurisprudential views of distinguished scholars.
This work has derived the vast majority of its rulings from this source and has utilized them in the process of discovering the doctrine. Almost every one of these rulings is the view of one or more jurists.
2- The jurisprudential views of the author of this book, in the correctness of which he himself believes.
3- Jurisprudential views that can be believed in scientifically and in scientific inquiry, even if we ourselves do not subscribe to them; whether due to personal reasons that prevent us from accepting the results of those views or due to the possibility of the existence of non-textual evidence.”

Martyr Sadr concludes: “As you will see, this book, in its method of examining topics, only explains the rulings that are related to the process of discovering the economic doctrine and building its superstructure. Therefore, a number of rulings on ownership, its transfer, and its growth are not explained in this book; because they are not needed in the process of discovering the doctrine. For this reason, we have the duty, God willing, to examine and explain such topics at another opportunity.
Also, in the discussions of this book, we will address some jurisprudential views which, according to the method of scientific discussion in this work, we will not engage in explaining them in detail, so that the ease of the discussions of the work and the uniformity of its style and manner are guaranteed. For this reason, we preferred to include the scientific examination of those views from a jurisprudential aspect in the appendices that we have added to the book. There, we will present the specific style and method of jurisprudential expression that only experts in jurisprudential discussions will fully comprehend.”

Axes of Discussions and Chapters of the Book

The topics of the second volume of Our Economics are structured around five axes and seventeen appendices: 1. The Process of Arriving at the Economic Doctrine; 2. The Theory of Distribution Before Production; 3. The Theory of Distribution After Production; 4. The Theory of Production; 5. The Responsibility of the State in Islamic Economics.

Below, we will state the detailed titles of each of these chapters and appendices.

Chapter One: The Process of Arriving at the Economic Doctrine

This chapter begins with an introduction and then the following topics are discussed:

• The Economic Doctrine and Islam
• The Concept of Economic Doctrine
• The Scope of Economic Science and Economic Doctrine
• Distinguishing Between Economic Science and Economic Doctrine
• The Relationship Between Doctrine and Law
• Abstract
• The Process of Discovery and the Process of Creation
• The Financial System as Civil Law
• Abstracting and Concluding
• Juxtaposing Rulings
• The Role of Insights in the Process of Discovery
• The Domain Lacking Ruling in Economic Legislation
• The Process of Ijtihad and the Personal Considerations of the Mujtahid
• Personal Considerations in Ijtihad and Their Factors
  • a) Justification of Reality
  • b) Intermingling Shari’ah Statement with a Specific Framework
  • c) Separating Shari’ah Evidence from Its Circumstances
  • d) Pre-emptive Stance Against Shari’ah Statement
• The Necessity of the Mujtahid’s Personal Opinion Intervening in Some Cases
• The Deception of Implemented Reality

Chapter Two: The Theory of Distribution Before Production

In this chapter, the following topics are discussed and examined:

• The Theory of Distribution Before Production
• Distribution of Wealth in Two Spheres
• The Main Source of Production
• Differing Stances of Doctrines on the Distribution of Nature
• Natural Resources of Production
  • 1. Land
    • Types of Islamic Lands
      • 1- Land that Became Islamic Through Conquest (Fatḥ)
        • a) Land Cultivated by Humans at the Time of Conquest
          • Evidence for Public Ownership and Their Apparent Meanings
          • Critique of Evidence for Private Ownership
        • b) Barren Land at the Time of Conquest
          • Evidence for State Ownership of Dead Land (Mawāt)
          • Result of the Difference Between the Two Forms of Ownership
          • The Role of Reclamation (Iḥyāʾ) in Dead Lands
        • c) Naturally Cultivated Land at the Time of Conquest
      • 2- Land Whose Inhabitants Accepted Islam Through Invitation (Daʿwah)
      • 3- Peace Treaty Land (Ṣulḥ)
      • 4- Other State Lands
    • The Limits of Private Dominion Over Land
    • Islam’s General Viewpoint on Land
    • A Word to Opponents of Land Ownership
    • The Political Factor in Land Ownership
    • Islam’s Viewpoint in Light of a New Perspective
  • 2. Raw Materials in the Earth
    • Apparent Mines (Maʿādin Ẓāhirah)
    • Hidden Mines (Maʿādin Bāṭinah)
    • Hidden Mines Close to the Surface of the Earth
    • Deeply Hidden Mines
    • Are Mines Subordinate to the Land?
  • Iqṭāʿ (Land Grants) in Islam
    • Iqṭāʿ in Kharājī Land
  • Quruq-gāh (Protected Pasture/Reserve) in Islam
  • 3. Natural Waters
  • 4. Other Natural Resources
• Theory
  • Preface
  • 1- The Negative Aspect of the Theory
    • Superstructure of This Aspect
    • Conclusion
  • 2- The Positive Aspect of the Theory
    • Superstructure of This Aspect
    • Conclusion
  • 3- Evaluation of Labor in This Theory
    • Superstructure
    • Conclusion
  • Economic Labor as the Foundation of Rights in This Theory
  • Ḥiyāzah (Acquisition/Possession) Having a Dual Characteristic
  • The Theory’s Differentiation Between Economic Labors
  • How Are Exclusive Rights Based on Labor Established?
  • The Basis of Ownership in Movable Wealth
  • The Role of Productive Labors in the Theory
  • The Role of Ḥiyāzah in Movable Wealth
  • Expansion of the Scope of the Theoretical Principle of Ḥiyāzah
  • Summary of the Theory’s Achievements
• Observations
  • 1- Comparative Study of the Islamic Theory
  • 2- The Phenomenon of Land Rent and Its Theoretical Interpretation
  • 3- Ethical Interpretation of Ownership in Islam
  • 4- Determining the Time Limit of Exclusive Rights

Chapter Three: The Theory of Distribution After Production

The topics of this chapter are:

• 1- The Theoretical Basis of the Distribution of Production Elements
  • Superstructure
  • An Overview of the Theory
    • 1- Example of the Theory in Capitalist Economics
    • 2- The Islamic Theory and Its Comparison with Capitalism
    • 3- The Theory’s Conclusion from the Superstructure
• 2- Aspects of Difference Between the Islamic Theory and Marxism
  • Superstructure
  • An Overview of the Theory
  • Summary of Differences Between the Islamic and Marxist Theories
    • 1- The Phenomenon of Ownership Stability in the Theory
    • 2- Separation of Ownership from Exchange Value in the Theory
  • The Theory’s Conclusion from the Superstructure
• 3- The General Law of Remuneration for Material Resources of Production
  • Superstructure
  • Theory
    • 1- Shaping the Superstructure
    • 2- Income is Based on Work Performed
    • 3- The Positive Aspect of the Rule
    • 4- The Negative Aspect of the Rule
    • 5 – The Relationship of the Prohibition of Riba (Usury/Interest) with the Negative Aspect of the Rule
    • 6 – Why Do Means of Production Not Share in Profit?
• 4- Observations
  • 1- The Role of Risk-Taking in Islamic Economics
  • 2- Capitalist Justifications for Interest; and Its Critique
  • 3- Limiting the Owner’s Dominion Over Productivity

Chapter Four: The Theory of Production

This chapter includes the following topics:

• The Relationship of Doctrine with Production
• Growth of Production
• Islam’s Means for Production Growth
  • 1- Islam’s Means from an Intellectual Aspect
  • 2- Islam’s Means from a Legislative Aspect
  • 3- Economic Policy for Production Growth
• Why Do We Produce?
  • 1- Islam’s Viewpoint on Wealth
  • 2- The Relationship of Production Growth with Distribution
  • 3- Islam’s Understanding of the Economic Problem
• The Relationship Between Production and Distribution
• Directing Production Towards Ensuring Distributive Justice
• The Relationship Between Production and Exchange
• Islam’s Viewpoint on Exchange
• Doctrinal Statements Related to This Viewpoint
• The Legislative Approach Reflecting This Viewpoint
• For Whom Do We Produce?
  • The Capitalist Stance
  • Critique of the Capitalist Stance
  • The Islamic Stance

Chapter Five: The Responsibility of the State in Islamic Economics

This chapter includes the following topics:

• 1- Social Security (Taʾmīn Ijtimaʿī)
  • The First Principle of Social Security
  • The Second Principle of Social Security
• 2- Social Equilibrium (Tawāzun Ijtimaʿī)
  • Providing the Necessary Means for Implementing This Principle
    • 1- Determining Fixed Taxes
    • 2- Creating Public Sectors
    • 3- The Nature of Islamic Legislation
• 3- The Principle of State Intervention
  • Why Has a Zone Devoid of Ruling (Manṭaqat al-Farāgh) Been Established?
  • The Existence of a Zone Devoid of Ruling is Not Considered a Deficiency
  • Legislative Evidence
  • Some Examples

Appendices

• A Discourse on Exceptional Cases
• Muslims’ Ownership of Conquered Lands
• The Ruling on Cultivated Land After the Legislation of the Ruling on Anfal (Spoils of War)
• Does the Ruling of Khums (One-Fifth Tax) Also Include Conquered Land?
• 2. A Discourse on the Inclusion of Conquered Dead Lands in the Ruling of Kharājī Land
• The Legal Effect of Stone Enclosure (Taḥjīr)
• A Discourse on Whether the Effect of Land Reclamation (Iḥyāʾ) is Ownership or the Creation of a Right
• A Discourse on the Permissibility of Selling Reclaimed Land, Based on: The View of Sheikh al-Tusi
• Acquiring Ownership of Land Through Ḥiyāzah
• There is No Difference Between Types of Lands Whose Owners Have Become Muslims
• The Ruling on Water Sources Springing from Owned Land
• A Discourse on an Individual’s Ownership of Water Extracted from the Ground
• A Discourse on the Obligation to Lend a Qanat (Underground Channel) When Not in Need of It
• Annexing Mines to Land
• A Bird Comes Under Ownership Through Hunting (Ṣayd), Even if Not Acquired Through Ḥiyāzah
• The Difference Between Ownership Through Hunting and Ownership Through Ḥiyāzah
• A Discourse on an Individual’s Ownership of Something Acquired Through the Ḥiyāzah of a Free Worker, Agent, or Employee
• A Discourse on the Fact That the Acquired Thing (Ḥiyāzah) Belongs to the One for Whom the Ḥiyāzah Was Performed, Not the Acquirer Himself
• Juʿālah (Payment for a Specific Task) in the Book Our Economics
• A Word About a Specific Narration.