Note: Religious upbringing and the jurisprudence of upbringing, although at first glance may seem exclusive to Islamic law, a look at other Abrahamic religions reveals that the jurisprudence of upbringing also exists in Christianity and Judaism—a jurisprudence of upbringing that shares commonalities and differences with Islamic jurisprudence of upbringing. Atefeh Parsian-Rad, a university graduate and level-two graduate of the Women’s Seminary, attempts in this exclusive note to express the perspectives of Christianity and Judaism regarding the jurisprudence of upbringing. The full text of this social jurisprudence researcher’s note is as follows:

Introduction

Religious upbringing, as one of the most important divine commands in Abrahamic religions, is a fundamental process for nurturing the complete and God-seeking human being, playing a pivotal role in shaping individual and social personality (Draz, 2010). Divine religions, backed by revelation, have provided specific foundations, principles, and methods for upbringing, and the “Jurisprudence of Upbringing” (Fiqh al-Tarbiyah), as a modern branch of Shia jurisprudence, deduces the religious rulings of educational behavior and extracts a coherent system from religious sources (A’rafi, 2014, pp. 51–56; Motahhari, n.d., p. 52; Hemmat-Bonari, 2010).

In the contemporary era, marked by moral challenges, identity crises, and cultural conflicts, a comparative study of the educational systems of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity is necessary. These religions possess educational programs based on Abrahamic monotheism, yet differences in the interpretation of monotheism and anthropology have yielded distinct outcomes. Main issue: How does the jurisprudence of upbringing in each religion nurture humanity? In Judaism, belief in the “chosen people” led to ethnic self-superiority and isolation (“Nay, ye are but mortals of His creating,” Al-Ma’idah: 18) (Iravani, 2004, pp. 177–200; Garaudy, 1990). In traditional Christianity, original sin and atonement diluted individual responsibility (“And no bearer of burdens shall bear another’s burden,” Al-An’am: 164; Fatir: 18) and rendered upbringing punishment-centered (Miller, 2014, p. 66; Jamshidiha & Shaban, 2020, pp. 226–235). Islam, however, with pure primordial nature (“The nature [Fitrah] of Allah upon which He has created mankind,” Ar-Rum: 30) and equality (“Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you,” Al-Hujurat: 13), rectified these distortions and presented a preventive and balanced upbringing through rulings on custody, breastfeeding, and gradual education (Zaidi, 2022; Ansari, n.d., Vol. 1, pp. 478–489; Qorbani Moqaddam, 2023; Jannati, 1995, pp. 9–10).

The comprehensiveness of Islamic jurisprudence—transcending ethnic and temporal limitations—has rendered upbringing universal and reformative, and modern developments (such as the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child) have brought Judaism and Christianity closer to Islamic principles (Jamshidiha & Shaban, 2020, pp. 226–235; Hemmat-Bonari, 2010). This research highlights similarities (ethics and spirituality) and analyzes differences (equality in Islam) to demonstrate the perfection of Islamic upbringing (Alavi, 2009; Moradi, 2015).

Main Objective: Proving the perfection of the Islamic jurisprudence of upbringing as the seal and corrector of previous deviations; a universal system based on pure monotheism.
Sub-Objectives: Elucidating the foundations of each religion, analyzing deviations, and comparing similarities and differences.

Innovation: Presenting a global model based on pure monotheism with the capacity for reform and coexistence in multicultural societies (A’rafi, 2012; Moradi, 2015; Alavi, 2009).

Section One: Conceptualizing Jurisprudence, Upbringing, and the Jurisprudence of Upbringing

“Fiqh” (Jurisprudence) literally means deep understanding and precise perception; an understanding that moves from present knowledge to the unknown and hidden layers, transcending mere “science” and “knowledge” (Raghib Isfahani, n.d., p. 642; Jawhari, n.d., Vol. 6, p. 2243; Firuzabadi, n.d., Vol. 4, p. 289; Ibn Faris, n.d., Vol. 4, p. 442; Fayyumi, n.d.; Mostafavi, 1982; Abdul-Naser, n.d., Vol. 1, p. 9). This meaning is employed in the Quran in the form of invitations to contemplate and comprehend (tafaqquh) divine signs (Al-An’am: 65 & 98; Al-Isra: 44; At-Tawbah: 122; Yunus: 101), and is also prominent in narrations; as Imam Sadiq (a) said: “When Allah desires good for a servant, He grants him deep understanding (tafaqquh) in religion” (Nouri, 2000, Vol. 1, p. 153; Kulayni, 1987, Vol. 1, p. 35). In Islamic terminology, jurisprudence initially signified a general understanding of religion, but gradually became specialized to mean “the knowledge of practical religious rulings derived from detailed proofs” (Ibn Manzur, 1993; Nouri, 1999, p. 7; Jannati, 1995, p. 3; Encyclopaedia of Islamic Jurisprudence Institute, 2002, Vol. 1, p. 17; Gorji, 1998, p. 7; Shahabi, 1996, Vol. 1, p. 30).

The vastness of Islamic jurisprudence, which emerged as one of the earliest disciplines following the advent of Islam, stems from its comprehensiveness in covering the domains of worship, family, civil rights, criminal law, and politics (Motahhari, n.d., pp. 52, 58; Taqavi, 1995, pp. 197–198, 211; Jannati, 1995, p. 10). This comprehensiveness is rooted in the universality of Islamic laws, which were established for the guidance and salvation of humanity across all times and places (Jannati, 1995, p. 9), setting it apart from Jewish Halakha, which is primarily defined within the framework of ethnic identity, and from Christian rulings, a significant portion of which is derived from the Old Testament and took on a more moral character in the New Testament (Miller, 2014, p. 66).

“Tarbiyah” (Upbringing/Education) comes from the roots “rabaw” and “rabab,” meaning nurturing, enhancement, and actualizing potentials (Farahidi, 1988, Vol. 8, p. 283; Ibn al-Athir, n.d., Vol. 2, p. 181; Ibn Manzur, n.d., Vol. 1, p. 404; Motahhari, 2010, Vol. 22, p. 551). In religious tradition, upbringing means bringing human beings to their worthy perfection through moral purification and the development of all existential dimensions (Madani, 1988, Vol. 4, p. 350; Ghazali, 1995, p. 262; Saliba, n.d., pp. 221–222). Differences among religions in their imagery of God, humanity, and the hereafter lead to differences in the objectives and paths of upbringing; while some schools emphasize liberation from suffering (Nirvana) or merely spiritual perfection, Islamic upbringing considers the goal to be the comprehensive perfection of humanity in the light of pure servitude and balanced attention to all dimensions (Draz, 2010).

The jurisprudence of upbringing is a modern branch of jurisprudence that seeks to explain the voluntary behaviors of the educator and the educatee within the framework of the five religious rulings (obligation, prohibition, recommendation, discouragement, permissibility) and to extract a coherent educational system from it (A’rafi, 2012; A’rafi, 2014, pp. 51–56; Mousavi, 2016b). In this conception, religious upbringing is not merely the “teaching of beliefs”; rather, it is the process of organizing all dimensions of the educatee’s life based on divine values. To avoid confusing the goal with the means, it is necessary to translate the goals of religious upbringing into measurable behaviors, adapt programs to the educatee’s capacity, and place faith valuation at the core of evaluation (Draz, 2010).

The interaction between jurisprudence and upbringing in Islamic society provides the theoretical foundation for the jurisprudence of upbringing. This interaction rests on five shared axes: a common subject (man and his behavior), a broad scope covering the entire lifespan and existential dimensions, shared content of “dos and don’ts,” a single ultimate goal of divine proximity (Adh-Dhariyat: 56), and practical function in the field of behavior (Hemmat-Bonari, 2010; Salehi & Kabir, 2023). Jurisprudence, on the one hand, relying on educational realities, establishes rulings proportionate to human capacity, and on the other hand, through rules such as alleviation and ease (“Allah intends for you ease and does not intend for you hardship,” Al-Baqarah: 185) and observing the capacity of the educatee, enables the extraction of important principles for upbringing (Hemmat-Bonari, 2010; Salehi & Kabir, 2023). This perspective has enabled the expansion of jurisprudence toward the “jurisprudence of education and upbringing” and the design of educational life stages (such as sovereignty, obedience, and ministry) (Salehi & Kabir, 2023).

Accordingly, the jurisprudence of upbringing in Islam rests on a dignified view of humanity (“And We have certainly honored the children of Adam,” Al-Isra: 70), individual responsibility (“And no bearer of burdens shall bear another’s burden,” Al-An’am: 164), and pure divine nature (“The nature [Fitrah] of Allah upon which He has created mankind,” Ar-Rum: 30) (Alavi, 2009; Zaidi, 2022). Raising a child within this framework is a divine duty for nurturing a righteous human being, and a network of obligatory, prohibited, recommended, and discouraged rulings in the realm of worship and family brings it into practice (Zaidi, 2022; Zarrindoust & Bebardel, 2023). Examples such as the gradual teaching of acts of worship, custody and breastfeeding rulings, and the parents’ duty to teach fundamental beliefs and prevent corruptions demonstrate that Islamic jurisprudence of upbringing, with a responsibility-centered, preventive, and balanced approach, guides upbringing toward monotheistic perfection and the flourishing of all potentials (Hurr al-Amili, n.d.; Muhaddith Nouri, n.d.; Tabataba’i, n.d.; Allamah Hilli, n.d.; Shahid Awwal, n.d.; Najafi, n.d.; Shahid Thani, n.d.; Sheikh Mufid, n.d.; Tabataba’i Yazdi, n.d.; Khoei, n.d.; Hakim, n.d.; Imam Khomeini, n.d.; Sa’di Abu Habib, 1988; Kulayni, 1987; Meshkini, 1995; Bandarchi, 2009; Qorbani Moqaddam, 2023; Hemmat-Bonari, 2010; Mousavi, 2016b).

Section Two: The Jurisprudence of Upbringing in Judaism

The jurisprudence of upbringing in Judaism is based on “Halakha”—the rabbinic law derived from the Torah and Talmud that, following the destruction of the Second Temple and the dispersion of the Jews, was compiled into the Mishnah and subsequently the Talmud, becoming a vast collection of religious and social rulings (Encyclopaedia Judaica, entry “Talmud”; Jewish Encyclopedia, entry “Talmud”). Halakha places upbringing primarily in the service of preserving the law and ethnic identity; Jews are considered the “chosen people” with a special covenant with God, and upbringing is organized to maintain loyalty to the mitzvot and the continuity of this identity (Unterman, 2006; Center for Studies and Answering Doubts, Qom, n.d.).

This anthropology led to a form of ethnic chosenness and, in certain rabbinic interpretations, to religious self-superiority, focusing upbringing on separation from non-Jews, living in ghettos, and emphasizing identity boundaries (Iravani, 2004; Garaudy, 1990). The Quran rejects this claim of inherent superiority, regarding Jews as “mortals” like others (Al-Ma’idah: 18) and introducing piety (taqwa) as the criterion for dignity (Al-Hujurat: 13); thus, Islamic upbringing is constructed upon a shared human nature and the universality of the message, whereas Jewish upbringing often remains intra-ethnic.

The goal of Jewish religious upbringing is to preserve religious-ethnic identity and transmit the law to subsequent generations; in some sources, neglecting to teach the Torah to children is cited as one of the factors leading to the destruction of Jerusalem (Center for Studies and Answering Doubts, Qom, n.d.; Habib Levi, 1996). The educational model features distinct gender differences: upbringing is shared until around the age of three, but after this age, distinct external and educational signs for boys (such as sidecurls and religious clothing) and rules such as yichud for girls are applied; religious maturity is accompanied by the Bar Mitzvah ceremony for boys and Bat Mitzvah for girls (Unterman, 2006). Alongside this, the Torah and Talmud emphasize ethics such as honoring parents, refraining from oppressing strangers, and avoiding moral vices (Leviticus 20:9; Exodus 20:12, 23:4–9; Habib Levi, 1996). Despite these values, the focus on ethnic identity and gender limitations distances this educational system from the universality and balance of Islamic upbringing (Moradi, 2015).

Section Three: The Jurisprudence of Upbringing in Christianity

In Christianity, educational principles are derived from the Bible (Old and New Testaments) and church tradition. The New Testament, focusing on the ethical and spiritual teachings of Jesus Christ, centers on love, forgiveness, repentance, and faith (Miller, 2014). Religious upbringing in this tradition is less “jurisprudence-centered” and more “ethics-centered and ecclesiastical”; the family and the teacher play the role of facilitators of values and regulators of the learning environment (Alavi, 2009; Barber, n.d.). The family is the primary core of upbringing, and numerous verses emphasize respect for parents, parental responsibility in teaching and discipline, and the regulation of marital and family relationships (Proverbs 22:6; Deuteronomy 6:6–7; Ephesians 5:22–33; 6:4; Colossians 3:20; Bible Encyclopedia, 2002; Baghban, 2006).

At the same time, certain theological doctrines of official Christianity—such as the Trinity, the divinity of Christ, original sin, and the theory of atonement—are subject to serious critique from the perspective of pure Islamic monotheism and carry significant educational implications; belief in original sin can reinforce a pessimistic view of the child’s nature and punishment-centered upbringing, while the theory of atonement weakens the sense of individual responsibility (Jamshidiha & Shaban, 2020). The Quran challenges these foundations by rejecting shirk (Maimah: 73) and emphasizing the principle that no one bears the burden of another (Al-An’am: 164; Fatir: 18). Nevertheless, modern developments, contemporary theology, and international instruments on children’s rights have effectively drawn many Christian educational approaches closer to a love-centered and supportive upbringing that aligns with certain Islamic principles (Shahsavani, 2024).

Comparative Analysis and Conclusion

From a comparative perspective, all three religions emphasize moral and spiritual values and responsibility before God, identifying family, worship, and sacred texts as the primary instruments of upbringing (Isazadeh & Abouzadeh Getabi, 2022). Nevertheless, their orientations differ: Judaism views upbringing in service of preserving the law and ethnic identity; Christianity focuses on faith in Christ, love, and church life; Islam bases upbringing on pure servitude, comprehensive human perfection, and the shared innate nature (Fitrah) of all human beings (Moradi, 2015; Alavi, 2009).

Islamic educational methods—such as precise stages of child upbringing, gradualness in religious obligations, emphasis on gentleness and avoidance of extremism, and a balanced network of family and worship rulings—create a universal, preventive, and balanced system that rectifies the deviations of ethnic chosenness, original sin, and mediation-centricity (Qorbani, 2016; Mousavi, 2022). Accordingly, the Islamic jurisprudence of upbringing, alongside commonalities with Jewish and Christian traditions, offers a balanced model for monotheistic upbringing at a global level and lays the groundwork for scholarly interfaith dialogue in the realm of religious upbringing (Mousavi, 2022; Isazadeh & Abouzadeh Getabi, 2022).

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