Spousal Violence in the Religious Approaches of Other Religions

Note: Spousal violence is not a purely Iranian or Islamic challenge; rather, other countries and religions are also engaged with it. Dr. Mehdi Ghasemi is a researcher in Abrahamic religions who completed seminary studies up to the advanced jurisprudence and principles (Bahth al-Kharij) level and earned his doctorate in Religions from the University of Religions and Denominations. In this exclusive note, he examines the perspectives of religions regarding the category of spousal violence. In this note, the views of five religions—Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Hinduism—are examined.

Introduction

Spousal abuse, as a social and legal dilemma, has consistently faced various reactions from religious and ethical systems across different societies. Divine and non-divine religions maintain differing approaches toward this phenomenon; some have explicitly condemned spousal abuse, while others have addressed this issue within a specific framework. The term “spousal abuse,” used in public minds to denote a husband’s violence against a wife, has existed across all ages and societies and, most regrettably, is increasing in today’s societies despite an atmosphere ostensibly favoring women’s rights.

In authentic Islamic culture, the foundation of the family rests upon affection, mercy, and mutual understanding between spouses; however, in Western culture, due to belief in humanistic theories, individualism, and moral relativism, the family is constructed solely based on pure legal criteria, and family members are compelled by legal tools to observe their duties. This issue represents one of the primary distinctions between the Western family and the Eastern family.

In most religions, spousal abuse is considered an objectionable act contrary to moral principles. Although various interpretations of this topic existed throughout history, today religions and religious societies have moved toward prohibiting domestic violence and protecting the rights of women and men in marital life. “Religious approaches,” alongside civil laws, can play an effective role in reducing spousal abuse and fostering a culture based on respect and affection.

In the following text, the issue of violence against a spouse is analyzed from the viewpoint of religious texts of other religions. This issue is examined from the perspective of several religions possessing more authoritative texts (having validity and authority): Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, and Buddhism.

Spousal Violence in the Jurisprudence and Law of Non-Islamic Religions

Judaism

In Jewish tradition, marriage is a sacred covenant between husband and wife that must be based on affection, respect, and mutual responsibility. In Jewish religious texts such as the Torah, Talmud, and other rabbinic commentaries, numerous recommendations are stated regarding a man’s behavior toward his wife. Despite emphasizing the observation of women’s rights, certain past jurisprudential commentaries permitted men strict behavior toward their wives, which in some cases could be considered spousal abuse.

In Judaism, principles such as “Shalom Bayit” (peace in the home) emphasize good behavior among spouses. Jewish religious texts advise men to observe women’s dignity and respect. Although certain historical interpretations might point to cultural and temporal differences, on the whole, spousal abuse is not endorsed in Judaism and contradicts the core teachings of this religion.

Christianity

In Christianity as well, great emphasis is placed on respect and affection among spouses. In Christian teachings, marriage is viewed as a sacred bond whose foundation is love, sacrifice, and mutual respect. The Holy Bible in the New Testament asks men to love their wives as their own bodies. For instance, the New Testament, especially in the epistles of Paul the Apostle, emphasizes healthy relationships among spouses. For example, in Paul’s Epistle to the Ephesians it is stated:

“Husbands, love your wives, just as Christ also loved the church and gave Himself up for her” (Ephesians 5:25).

This verse shows that men are obligated to treat their wives with love and sacrifice, not with violence. Likewise, in the Book of Colossians it is stated:

“Husbands, love your wives and do not be harsh with them” (Colossians 3:19).

These teachings demonstrate that violence against a spouse is not only a violation of Biblical teachings, but is considered contrary to the Christian concept of love and forgiveness.

Zoroastrianism

In Zoroastrianism, the family foundation holds a special status and rests upon the principle of “Asha” (right order and truth). Marriage and marital relations, as one of the most vital pillars of society, must be based on affection, cooperation, and mutual respect. The Avesta, the sacred text of Zoroastrians, emphasizes the primary role of spouses in familial and social happiness, regarding violence as contrary to the teachings of goodness and righteousness.

Zoroaster, messenger of the Mazdayasna faith, expanded his teachings based on three fundamental principles: Good Thoughts, Good Words, and Good Deeds (Humata, Hukhta, Hvarshta). These principles served as the moral foundation of all dimensions of Zoroastrian life, including family relations. In Zoroastrian teachings, man and woman are recognized as two fundamental pillars of the family system, emphasizing love, respect, and justice in their relationship.

In the Avesta, the sacred text of Zoroastrians, man and woman possess distinct rights and duties in family life, and marriage is considered a sacred covenant that must be based on fairness and lasting friendship. Therefore, any oppression or violence against either party in marital life conflicts with Zoroastrian ethical principles.

Existing religious and historical documents show that Zoroastrianism not only does not promote violence against a spouse, but strongly confronts it. In Zoroastrian sources such as the Vendidad and Pahlavi texts, spousal abuse and mistreatment of women are condemned, and men are called to observe justice and affection in the family.

In the Gathas, the oldest section of the Avesta and the hymns of Zoroaster himself, good and affectionate behavior toward family members is advised, and mistreating a woman is considered contrary to religious teachings. For example, in these texts it is stated that justice and goodness are the basis of human interactions, and anyone deviating from these principles will face divine punishment.

Hinduism

In Hinduism, the roles of women and men in the family are traditionally defined. Woman holds a specific status in ancient Hindu texts such as the Rigveda, Manusmriti, and other sacred texts. Rigveda: In certain verses of this text, women possess respect and are revered as wives, mothers, and goddesses.

For instance, sacred texts such as the Manusmriti advise kindness and justice in behavior toward wives. For example, in some of these texts, women are honored, and their role as the pillar of the family is emphasized. Nevertheless, various interpretations of Hindu teachings have caused the woman’s role in certain instances to be considered limited and subordinate to men. The legal and social text of the Manusmriti strongly supports male superiority, regarding women as subordinate to fathers, husbands, and ultimately sons. This legal and sacred text contains instructions, some of which impose severe restrictions on women.

In modern eras, legal reforms were enacted to protect women’s rights against domestic violence.

Buddhism

Buddhism, as one of the major and influential religions in the world, has consistently emphasized peace, affection, and mutual respect. However, despite these teachings, instances of violence against spouses are reported in certain Buddhist societies. This issue has raised questions regarding Buddhism’s stance toward domestic violence. In this article, we examine Buddhism’s perspective on spousal violence and evaluate whether Buddhist teachings support or condemn such behavior.

In Buddhist teachings, concepts such as loving-kindness (Mettā), compassion (Karuṇā), and non-violence (Ahiṃsā) are introduced as guiding principles in human relations. Buddha believed that relations among individuals must be constructed upon respect, compassion, and non-harm. In Buddhist texts, mutual respect in the family is presented as an important principle for achieving internal and social peace. Tolerance toward a spouse, especially in the teaching of non-violence and in marital relations, emphasizes refraining from harming the spouse.

Therefore, in Buddhist teachings, violence in any form is condemned.

Based on Buddha’s teachings, spousal violence is not only an objectionable and unjust act, but stands in conflict with fundamental principles of Buddhism. Buddhist teachings emphasize that any type of violence, even verbal violence, generates negative karma (karma) and fuels the cycle of suffering (saṃsāra). In fact, Buddhism asks its followers to refrain from engaging in any harmful behavior toward their life partner and instead strengthen respect, affection, and support in family relations.

Instances of Spousal Violence in the Jurisprudence and Law of Non-Islamic Religions

Judaism:

In Jewish jurisprudence, divorce is possible only from the man’s side, and a woman cannot separate from him without the man’s permission. Based on Jewish Sharia, the woman must receive a “Get” (bill of divorce) from her husband; otherwise, even if she suffers oppression and violence in marital life, she cannot independently request a divorce. In certain cases, this has led to coercion or abuse of women’s rights, placing women in unfavorable conditions.

In certain traditional Jewish commentaries, marrying off daughters without their full consent was possible. Especially in ancient times, fathers played a primary role in decision-making regarding daughters’ marriages, and in certain cases, women did not possess the right to object to these decisions.

One of the laws of Jewish jurisprudence criticized by certain human rights researchers is the rulings related to women during menstruation (Niddah). Based on these rulings, women during this period are considered ritually impure and are excluded from certain religious and social practices. These laws, although in certain societies they may possess purely religious and spiritual dimensions, from the perspective of women’s rights are regarded as a form of discrimination and injustice.

In certain Jewish rulings, severe punishments are envisioned for women disobeying traditional laws. Among them, punishment such as stoning women accused of adultery in certain religious texts can be noted.

Studying Jewish jurisprudence shows that certain rulings and regulations of this religion, especially rulings related to women, can in cases be considered instances of violence against women. Many of these laws took shape in specific historical periods, and some are followed today in traditional Jewish societies. Nevertheless, legal reforms and modern attitude shifts have assisted in moderating some of these rulings and improving women’s rights status in Jewish societies. With the expansion of legal awareness and comparative religious studies, one can achieve a more comprehensive understanding of women’s status in sacred texts and offer solutions to remove historical discriminations.

Christianity:

In certain misinterpretations of Christian teachings, woman is introduced as an inferior being and expected to obey her spouse unconditionally. This perspective provides the groundwork for applying religious pressure and imposing beliefs upon women, which represents a form of violence; whereas core Christian teachings emphasize equal value of man and woman before God.

For example, the Catholic Church and other Christian denominations consistently condemn economic, verbal, and physical violence, supporting women’s rights against any abuse. Pope Francis, leader of the Catholic Church, has repeatedly described violence against women as a “shameful stain upon humanity,” asking societies to take steps to eradicate this dilemma.

Spousal violence is denounced in Christian teachings, and Christian churches generally oppose any mistreatment in the family.

Zoroastrianism:

Lack of expressing affection, inattention, and emotional indifference toward a spouse are also considered forms of violence. In Zoroastrian culture, marital relations must form based on friendship and companionship, and man and woman must always support one another. Inattention to a spouse’s emotional needs conflicts with the spirit of Zoroaster’s teachings. The Zoroastrian religion, emphasizing ethical teachings, rejects family violence, regarding principles like affection, cooperation, and justice as essential for solidifying marital relations. From this perspective, preserving the dignity and mutual respect of spouses is not only a moral duty, but a fundamental principle in social order. Attention to these teachings can inspire movement toward healthy family life and reducing violence in society.

Hinduism:

Although certain ancient texts spoke of supporting women, traditional and social interpretations created discriminatory behaviors. In certain interpretations, women were considered male property and their independence restricted. On the other hand, rituals like Sati (burning widows alongside deceased husbands) prevalent in the past represent an example of organized violence against women in Hindu society.

Gender Inequality: In many regions of India, women remain under male dominance, and macro family and social decision-making is assigned to men.
Family-Centered Instructions: In certain traditions, a woman is obligated to obey her spouse unconditionally, even if this obedience leads to physical or mental abuse.
Dower and Dowry: The culture of paying dowry is considered one of the most important reasons for violence against women in India. Many women are involved in domestic violence arising from financial disputes and dowry issues.

Today, with increasing awareness and women’s rights movements, widespread efforts have been made to prevent violence against women. Nevertheless, problems such as domestic abuse, honor killings, forced marriages, and social restrictions remain visible in certain Hindu societies.

However, legal developments and feminist social movements in India have taken effective steps toward reducing violence against women. For example, enacting strict laws against domestic violence and human rights activists’ efforts have led to greater awareness regarding women’s rights.

Buddhism:

Despite Buddhism’s emphasis on affection and compassion, certain manifestations of spousal violence are observed even in Buddhist societies, the most important of which are noted below:

Psychological and Verbal Violence

Certain interpretive traditions of Buddhist teachings might lead to restricting women’s roles and creating inequality. On occasion, spouses might be spiritually blamed and held fault for “bad karma” or lack of proper training in past lives. This type of discourse can be a form of psychological violence.

Social Limitations and Traditional Roles

In part of Buddhist societies, women’s roles remain defined within limited cultural frameworks. Restricting a spouse from attaining education, social participation, or economic independence is among matters representing a subtle form of structural violence.

Physical Violence and Religious Abuse

In certain regions, physical violence against women or spouses still exists, occasionally hidden under cultural and traditional justifications. Although fundamental principles of Buddhism condemn such behavior, in certain cultures under this religion’s influence, domestic violence remains a social problem.

Buddhist Teachings in Countering Spousal Violence

Buddhism offers multiple solutions to counter spousal violence, most of which emphasize increasing awareness, strengthening moral values, and promoting compassion. Some key principles include:

Ahimsa (Non-violence): The fundamental principle rejects any harm to others and calls for peaceful coexistence.
Meditation and Mindfulness: Mindfulness practices can prevent violent encounters and assist in improving marital relations.
Promoting Equality and Human Dignity: Modern Buddhist teachings emphasize the equality of all humans, introducing women’s roles not as subordinates, but as partners and companions on the path to enlightenment.

Protection of the Spousal Violence Victim in the Jurisprudence and Law of Non-Islamic Religions

Judaism:

Based on Jewish teachings, society is obligated to support individuals subjected to abuse and violence. These supports encompass spiritual, psychological, and social realms. In certain jurisprudential texts, it is stated that if a woman suffers violence from her spouse, she can request support from religious courts known as “Beth Din” to exit this situation. Furthermore, Jewish charitable organizations and social institutions take measures to protect and support female victims of violence.

One of the important discussions in Jewish jurisprudence is the issue of “divorce.” In Jewish Sharia, divorce discretion lies with the man, although certain specific schools have stipulated conditions for women to request divorce. In cases where the husband mistreats his wife, based on certain jurisprudential rulings, the woman can request divorce from the rabbinical court. Nevertheless, executing these rulings throughout history faced numerous challenges.

In the modern era, many Jewish scholars have revised rulings related to family relations. In modern Jewish societies, especially reformist and conservative communities, new supportive procedures have been presented to prevent oppression against women within marriage. Today many synagogues and religious courts, considering women’s rights, have provided a platform to limit husbands’ unlimited discretion in behavior toward wives.

Christianity:

Many churches worldwide offer programs supporting domestic violence victims. These programs include spiritual counseling, psychological support, providing temporary shelter, financial aid, and increasing community awareness regarding domestic violence and its consequences.

Many churches have established counseling and support centers for domestic violence victims to assist women and other injured individuals. These measures indicate Christianity’s commitment to preserving human dignity and establishing peace in families.

Some Christian church measures to support violence victims include:

Counseling and Psychological Support Programs: Many churches maintain special counseling teams assisting violence victims through spiritual help and counseling to find a way out of difficult conditions.
Strengthening Public Awareness: Clergy and religious leaders speak in meetings and sermons regarding the harms of domestic violence, sensitizing society to this issue.
Creating a Safe Environment and Practical Support: Many Christian charitable institutions provide safe places for women and men subjected to violence.
Encouraging Healthy and Mutual Dialogue: Christianity consistently emphasizes resolving conflicts through peace, dialogue, and mediation, and Christian counselors strive to rebuild damaged relations through peaceful methods where possible.

Zoroastrianism:

In the Zoroastrian faith, society’s responsibility toward an individual subjected to oppression is considered very prominent. Supporting spousal violence victims encompasses various aspects, including:

Legal and Social Support: In Zoroastrian texts, laws and solutions existed to prevent oppression and support injured individuals.
Promoting a Culture of Respect and Justice: Teachings of this faith remind humans that observing justice and mutual respect in marital life is necessary.
Necessity of Awareness-Raising: Society plays an important role in raising awareness regarding spouses’ rights and preventing violence.

Hinduism:

Analyzing Hindu teachings shows that supporting domestic violence victims is not only a social requirement, but a religious and spiritual commitment. Utilizing ethical teachings, legal supports, and social activities, effective steps can be taken toward reducing spousal violence and supporting its victims.

Solutions for Supporting Violence Victims in Hinduism

Certain Hindu religious leaders in the contemporary era have attempted to offer models supporting women and reducing domestic violence through new interpretations of sacred texts. Principles of Karma and Dharma show that oppression and violence against any individual will carry negative consequences for the perpetrator and negatively impact the Karma cycle. Hence, emphasizing kindness, justice, and equality in the family represents a spiritual solution to counter violence.

In countries with a Hindu majority, civil laws play an important role in confronting domestic violence. For example, The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 in India is a legal tool enabling women to take action against domestic violence and receive necessary support.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Hindu societies strive to support female violence victims. These associations, through information dissemination, legal aid, psychological counseling, and establishing shelter centers, provide platforms for supporting women.

One of the most vital solutions for supporting spousal violence victims in Hinduism is changing improper attitudes through education and awareness-raising. Teaching concepts such as justice, mutual respect, and women’s rights through media, schools, and religious centers can assist in reducing domestic violence.

Buddhism:

Buddhism offers multiple solutions to counter domestic violence, including:

Promoting Mettā and Karuṇā: Loving-kindness and compassion must be strengthened in marital relations to eliminate space for violence.
Education and Awareness: Familiarity with authentic Buddhist teachings can assist in reforming attitudes and reducing spousal violence.
Meditation and Introspection: Meditation exercises can assist in controlling anger and reducing violent behaviors.
Supporting Victims: Buddhist societies are obligated to support violence victims and direct them toward peaceful solutions.

Conclusion in Buddhism: Nevertheless, in certain Buddhist societies, spousal violence remains observed. This matter cannot be attributed to Buddhism, but rather stems from cultural, social factors, and local traditions that occasionally conflict with authentic Buddhist teachings. Some of these societies, due to various reasons including traditional views on gender roles, regard violence as prevalent or even justifiable, whereas such behaviors are not endorsed in Buddhist texts.

Verbal Violence Among Spouses in the Jurisprudence and Law of Non-Islamic Religions

Verbal violence is one of the hidden afflictions of marital life that can leave destructive impacts on spousal relations. In other words, verbal violence is a form of psychological harassment that can take shape through insults, shouting, humiliation, blame, and threats. This type of violence, unlike physical violence, leaves invisible yet deep wounds upon individual souls and minds. In all divine religions, respecting and honoring human relations, especially the marital bond, holds an exalted position. In monotheistic religions as well, spousal relations are constructed upon love, mutual understanding, and good speech. Nevertheless, one of the important challenges in marital life is verbal violence, which can negatively impact the family foundation.

Judaism:

Verbal violence refers to using hurtful, humiliating, or blameworthy words among spouses resulting in psychological and mental injuries. In Jewish religious texts, commendable speech is emphasized as one of the vital pillars of social and family relations. Jewish religious teachings advise that spouses in interacting with one another must use affectionate words and refrain from any offensive or humiliating speech.

In the Talmud, as one of the fundamental sources of Jewish teachings, reference is made to the importance of speech and its impact on human relations. Likewise, in the Torah and other religious texts of this faith, it is advised that the tongue must not be a tool for harming others. In certain religious commentaries, it is emphasized that words can wound others’ hearts like a sharp blade; hence, controlling speech is considered one of human moral duties.

Based on Jewish teachings, marital relations are based on respect, affection, and mutual understanding, and verbal violence can disrupt this balance. Among consequences of verbal violence in spousal relations, one can point to reduced affection, increased emotional distance, reduced trust, and ultimately destabilizing the family foundation.

Jewish Solutions for Preventing Verbal Violence

Self-Control in Speech: In Judaism, controlling the tongue and using good speech is advised as a moral virtue. Each individual before expressing words must reflect on their consequences.
Increasing Awareness and Studying Sacred Texts: Familiarity with Torah and Talmud teachings regarding the importance of affectionate speech can assist in improving spousal relations.
Mutual Affection and Respect: Based on Jewish teachings, spouses are obligated to treat one another with respect, and in times of dispute, utilize peaceful methods instead of harsh words.
Resorting to Religious and Psychological Counseling: In case of communication problems, consulting religious advisors and specialized psychologists can assist in resolving issues and preventing recurring verbal violence.
Practicing Patience and Forbearance: One of the important solutions taught in Judaism is practicing forbearance in moments of anger and controlling negative emotions.

Christianity:

In the Holy Bible, the power and impact of words are repeatedly mentioned. In Proverbs 15:1 it is stated:

“A soft answer turns away wrath, but a harsh word stirs up anger.”

This verse shows that choice of words and tone of speech in human relations, especially among spouses, holds great importance. In Christianity, speech is not merely a means of communication, but can cause peace or destroy a relationship.

In Ephesians 4:29 as well we read:

“Let no unwholesome word proceed out of your mouth, but only what is good for necessary edification, that it may impart grace to the hearers.”

It is clear that from Christianity’s perspective, the tongue must not be a tool for harassment, but a means for building peace and love in the family.

Christian Solutions for Countering Verbal Violence

In James 3:5–6 it is stated:

“The tongue is a fire, a world of iniquity… and sets on fire the course of nature.”

Therefore, Christianity emphasizes that each individual must guard their words and use their tongue as a tool for peace and friendship.

In Colossians 3:12–14 it is stated:

“Therefore, as the elect of God, holy and beloved, put on tender mercies, kindness, humility, meekness, longsuffering; bearing with one another, and forgiving one another, if anyone has a complaint against another.”

True love requires tolerance and forgiveness, and in marital life, these principles must serve as the headline of spousal behavior.

One of the ways to prevent verbal violence is reciting prayer and seeking guidance from God. Christianity advises that spouses in moments of tension seek patience from God and, with a humble spirit, maintain affectionate behavior toward one another.

Christianity emphasizes negotiation and affectionate dialogue in resolving family problems. As stated in Proverbs 16:24: “Pleasant words are like a honeycomb, sweetness to the soul and health to the bones.”

By refraining from anger and respectfully expressing feelings, problems can be resolved in a healthy and fair manner.

Zoroastrianism:

Verbal violence encompasses any humiliating speech, insult, blame, and sarcastic remarks that damage the personality and values of the opposing party. In the Zoroastrian perspective constructed upon principles of Good Thoughts, Good Words, and Good Deeds, any hurtful and unseemly speech conflicts with these teachings. The Avesta, the sacred book of Zoroastrians, consistently emphasizes good speech and the necessity of using language toward expressing affection.

Based on Zoroastrian teachings, good speech not only prevents verbal violence, but solidifies the family foundation. In other words, in Zoroastrian teachings, any verbal violence is not only harmful, but considered contrary to the principle of Good Words (Hukhta). Spousal relations must be established upon affection, respect, and honesty so the family atmosphere enjoys peace and intimacy. Zoroaster, emphasizing good speech, offers a solution that can assist in improving relations between spouses and preventing harms arising from verbal violence. Hence, following these teachings not only yields individual and familial happiness, but plays an effective role in a healthy social structure.

Some of the most important Zoroastrian discussions in this field include:

Mutual Respect: Spouses in their speech must preserve one another’s dignity and refrain from harsh and offensive words.
Preserving Peace and Spiritual Balance: Using language toward peace and strengthening human values is among indicators of an ideal Zoroastrian family.
Emphasis on Pardon and Forgiveness: The Zoroastrian religion advises that spouses accept one another’s mistakes with kindness and refrain from using blameworthy words.
Role of Good Words in Nurturing Future Generations: Children in the family environment learn how to interact with others. Enjoying an affectionate discourse among parents exerts a positive impact on educating future generations.

Hinduism:

In sacred Hindu texts such as the Rigveda, Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gita, good and kind speech is recommended as one of the tools for spiritual growth. Speech not only reflects an individual’s personality, but impacts Karma and man’s future life. Therefore, verbal violence among spouses from Hinduism’s perspective is considered a harmful behavior standing in conflict with this school’s moral principles.

Based on Hindu teachings, Karma encompasses not only physical actions, but human behavior and speech. Consequently, verbal violence will carry negative effects in an individual’s life and future. Individuals on the path of Dharma (moral duty) bear the duty to avoid violence in any form, including verbal violence.

Some negative effects of verbal violence in marital life from Hinduism’s perspective include:

Creating Negative Energy (Dosha): Harsh and hurtful words create negative vibrations, disrupting spiritual harmony among spouses.
Damage to Karma: Swearing and verbal humiliation create negative Karma in an individual’s life that might prove impactful in this life or future lives.
Disrupting Mental Balance (Sattvah): Violent speech disrupts spouses’ mental and spiritual balance, hindering them from spiritual progress.

Hinduism, in addition to emphasizing negative consequences of verbal violence, offers solutions to control and curb it, among which one can point to:

Pratyahara (Control of Senses): Controlling the tongue and refraining from harmful speech by mental practice and emotion control can assist in reducing verbal violence.
Sadhana (Spiritual Practice): Yoga and meditation as part of the spiritual path can assist individual mastery over emotions and tongue control.
Japa (Chanting and Repeating Mantras): Repeating sacred mantras yields mental tranquility and internal purification from negative energies.
Ahimsa (Refraining from Violence in All Forms): The principle of Ahimsa (non-violence) is not restricted to actions, but encompasses speech and behavior as well. Practicing this principle in marital communications can prevent verbal violence.
Samvad (Empathetic Dialogue): Promoting the art of dialogue, active listening, and mutual understanding will strengthen marital relations and reduce verbal tensions.

Buddhism:

In Buddhist teachings, the concept of “Right Speech” (Sammā Vācā) is one of the eightfold principles of the Buddhist path to achieve enlightenment. This concept emphasizes four fundamental pillars:

Refraining from Lying: Honesty in speech is a key factor in creating trust and mutual understanding between spouses.
Avoiding Harsh and Violent Speech: A harsh and critical tone can cause psychological harm to a spouse and strain the relationship.
Refraining from Gossip and Slander: Speaking about a spouse’s weaknesses and mistakes, especially in the presence of others, can lead to destroying the relationship.
Avoiding Futile and Meaningless Speech: Using positive and inspiring words assists in reducing stress and increasing affection in marital relations.

Proposed Solutions for Reducing Verbal Violence in Marital Life from Buddhism’s Perspective

Practicing Mindfulness: Increasing awareness in the present moment and precision in choosing words before expressing them.
Loving-Kindness Meditation (Mettā Bhāvanā): This method assists individuals in strengthening feelings of empathy and kindness toward their spouse.
Anger and Negative Emotion Management: Identifying nervous triggers and practicing deep breathing to control tense moments.
Using Constructive and Motivational Speech: Replacing critical speech with encouraging and supportive words.
Active Listening: Mutual understanding and willingness to hear a spouse’s problems without judgment.

Spousal Violence in the Legal Systems of Non-Islamic Religions

Domestic violence, especially violence against spouses, is one of the legal and moral challenges across various societies. Meanwhile, divine religions played an important role in elucidating moral and legal frameworks for spousal relations.

Judaism:

In the Torah and other Jewish sacred texts, no authorization exists for executing violence against spouses. On the contrary, any mistreatment or inflicting harm upon a spouse is severely condemned. In the Talmud, which is one of the most important sources of Jewish jurisprudence, any violent behavior with a spouse is deemed unacceptable. Certain texts explicitly emphasize that men treating their wives harsh are considered sinful, and in certain cases, this behavior can lead to a judicial ruling.

Jewish jurists throughout history issued numerous fatwas regarding family violence. Many believe that if a man exercises violence with his wife, Jewish courts (Beth Din) can compel him to reform behavior and, if necessary, determine specific punishments for him. In certain Jewish jurisprudential schools, women are even permitted to refer to court and obtain divorce to preserve security and end violent behaviors.

Christianity:

Christianity, based on Gospel teachings and the teachings of Jesus Christ (a), calls humanity to love, forgiveness, and kindness. The Holy Bible, especially the New Testament, places special emphasis on affectionate behavior among family members, condemning any violence and mistreatment.

In Christian societies, civil laws were also founded based on moral and religious principles. Today in most Christian-majority countries, violence against women is considered a crime, and laws are enacted to protect victims and punish perpetrators.

Civil Laws Regarding Spousal Violence

In numerous countries such as the United States, France, and Germany, violence against a spouse, even in the form of corporal punishment, is deemed a crime, and various punishments are envisioned for it. Courts also play an important role in supporting female violence victims.

Church Approaches to Legal Recourse for Violence

Various churches, while advising peace and reconciliation, advise violence victims to take action through legal avenues to restore their rights. Simultaneously, they emphasize social and emotional support for abused women.

Zoroastrianism:

Based on Avestan teachings and Pahlavi texts, Zoroastrianism places great emphasis on healthy family life, love, mutual respect, and refraining from any oppression and violence. In these teachings, man and woman are considered two fundamental pillars of the family, and their interaction must be based on Asha (cosmic order and truth).

Prohibition of Violence Against Spouses in Zoroastrianism

In Zoroastrian texts, any violence—whether physical or psychological—is considered an objectionable act contrary to religious teachings. In the Avesta and Pahlavi books such as Dadestan-i Denig and Pahlavi Rivayats, observing ethics in behavior toward a spouse is emphasized, and mistreating spouses is considered a sin. For this reason, Zoroastrians are obligated to treat their spouses with truth and compassion.

Punishment of Violence and Mistreatment in Ancient Zoroastrian Sources

Examining Zoroastrian legal texts such as Madiyan i Hazar Dadistan shows that violence against spouses could carry legal consequences. For example, a man mistreating his wife in certain cases lost child custody rights and was even obligated to compensate for damages. In a general view, Zoroastrian society demanded resolving family problems based on dialogue and fairness, condemning violence in marital life.

Hinduism:

Hinduism, due to its deep impact on traditional Indian laws, in certain cases directly or indirectly impacted codified laws of this country. Nevertheless, India today maintains specific laws to combat domestic violence. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 is among important laws protecting women against physical, mental, and economic abuse.

Although certain social customs and traditions might lead to violence against women, efforts have been made by the government and women’s rights activists to change these practices. Civil organizations and active human rights groups constantly emphasize the necessity of protecting women’s rights.

Examining Indian texts and principles shows that Hinduism intrinsically emphasizes peace, harmony, and respect in family relations. Although certain traditional interpretations of sacred texts might provide space for discriminatory behaviors, fundamental teachings of this faith do not endorse violence against women. Today, the government of India, by enacting supportive laws and social activities, strives to reduce spousal violence.

Buddhism:

One of the most fundamental teachings of Buddhism is the principle of non-violence in Buddhism, Ahiṃsā. This principle, playing a essential role across various Buddhist schools including Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana, emphasizes that any harm and violence—whether physical or psychological—runs contrary to the path of liberation and awareness.

Buddha in his teachings emphasizes refraining from violence, advising that each individual treat others, especially relatives, with kindness and affection. In Buddhist sacred texts such as the Dhammapada it is stated:

“He who harms others with violence will not find happiness. He who shows kindness to others will experience peace and tranquility.”

Therefore, any violence against spouses, whether from women or men, stands in conflict with fundamental principles of Buddhism. According to Buddha’s teachings, achieving internal peace and spiritual perfection requires respecting others’ rights and feelings, especially individuals with whom we hold family relationships.

Buddhism’s Legal View of Domestic Violence

In most Buddhist-majority countries, civil and legal laws were also drafted under the influence of Buddhist teachings. In countries like Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar, domestic violence is both custom-wise and morally condemned, and in certain countries specific laws exist supporting female domestic violence victims.

Certain Buddhist monks and preachers of this faith believe that marriage is not only a legal responsibility, but a moral commitment constructed upon love and mutual understanding. Hence, any offensive or violent behavior might not only cause physical and mental harm to a spouse, but ruin the violent individual’s path of Karma.

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